Man selects only for his own good: Nature only for that of the being which she tends. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, a path-breaking scientific work by British naturalist Charles Darwin was first published in 1859. This book laid the foundations for modern evolutionary biology. In it, Darwin asserts that plant and animal life evolved from earlier forms through a process called natural selection. As a naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle (1831–1836) Darwin conducted his observation and research in the Galápagos Islands, off the coast of South America. He recorded data on various species found there and these observations helped him formulate his theory about the mystery of the origin of species. The Theory of Evolution broke new ground by explaining the origin of species through descent from common ancestors, not by a divine power. On the Origin of Species covers a wide range of subjects, including the principles of mutation, variation, natural selection, evolution, amongst others. This seminal work has influenced many disciplines of study such as anthropology, the Classics, and religious studies.


Charles robert Darwin (1809–1882) was a British naturalist and biologist. He is well-known for his theory of evolution and his understanding of the process of natural selection. In 1859, he published his path-breaking book, On the Origin of Species. Darwin was born in the town of Shrewsbury, England. His father, Dr. R.W. Darwin, was a medical doctor, and his grandfather, Dr. Erasmus Darwin, was a botanist. His mother, Susanna, died when he was eight years old. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh and Christ’s College in Cambridge. His father hoped he would become a medical doctor or a parson, but he preferred to study Natural History. At Christ’s College, botany professor John Stevens Henslow became young Darwin’s mentor. Professor Henslow recommended him for a naturalist’s position aboard the HMS Beagle, which was slated to take a five-year survey trip around the world. On 27 December 1831, the HMS Beagle set out with Darwin aboard. During this voyage, Darwin collected a variety of natural specimens. His observations led him to formulate the seminal theory of evolution.

Homer’s Iliad is one of the greatest literary works of antiquity. This epic poem, consisting of 24 books that correspond to the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet, grapples with the crucial final phase of the Trojan war and its ramifications.The warrior hero Achilles, son of Peleus (a mortal) and Thetis (a sea goddess), is the central figure of The Iliad. Given a choice, Achilles bravely embraces a short and glorious life in war over a long life lacking heroic glory. The Iliad depicts the Trojan war as not just a battle between the Greeks and the non-Greeks, the gods are both keen watchers and active participants in the unfolding conflict.While exploring the themes of love, friendship, honour, fate, will in this magnificent epic, Homer masterfully dissects the darkest human impulses and lays bare the horrors of war.


The Greek poet Homer is believed to have been born sometime between the 12th and 8th centuries BC somewhere along the coast of Asia Minor. Though very little is known about this enigmatic figure, he is renowned for his epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey. The Iliad tells the tale of the siege of Troy, the Trojan war, and Paris’ kidnapping of Helen – the world’s most beautiful woman. The Odyssey, set in the period after the fall of Troy, traces the trajectory of the life and exploits of the Greek hero, Odysseus. The Iliad has a strictly formal structure while The Odyssey adopts a more colloquial style. Both epics are laden with startling insights into early human society and human nature.

“Her reputation for reading a great deal hung about her like the cloudy envelope of a goddess in an epic.
” The Portrait of a Lady, a novel by well-known American writer, Henry James (1843—1916), was penned in the first stage of his prolific career. Born and brought up in America, James became a naturalized English citizen in 1915. The Portrait of a Lady was published in three volumes in 1881. The story revolves around Isabel Archer, a young, impoverished, and vivacious American woman who journeys to Europe to broaden her horizons. In England, Isobel immerses herself in the cultural scene with gusto and is pursued by many suitors. She finally chooses the reclusive Gilbert Osmond as her husband.
James expertly examines the American national character in The Portrait of a Lady. As in his other memorable works, he grapples with the theme of the clash of the innocence and joy of life of the New World with the cynicism and wisdom of the Old World in this classic.

Henry James, born on 15 April 1843, was an American writer. An avid reader since childhood, James was deeply interested in understanding different cultures. Till the age of 12, he was educated by private tutors. Thereafter, he studied at different schools in Paris, Geneva, and Bonn. In 1862, he sought admission in Harvard Law School. However, he soon withdrew to focus on his writing.
Over nearly 51 years, he wrote 20 novels, 112 short stories, and 12 plays. Amongst his notable works are The American (1877), The Tragic Muse (1890), The Awkward Age (1899), and The Golden Bowl (1904). He also wrote several reviews, stories, and articles for
The Atlantic Monthly and The North American Review.
His works have been translated into several languages. Known as the torch bearer of the 20th-century “stream-of-consciousness” movement, James passed away in London on
28 February 1916.

“A woman has to live her life, or live to repent not having lived it.”
Lady Chatterley’s Lover, a novel by celebrated English writer D.H. Lawrence, was first published in a limited English-language edition in Italy (1928) and in Paris (1929). In England, an expurgated version was published in 1932. The full text was published in 1959 in New York and in 1960 in London. Following its publication, the novel became the subject of a widely publicised obscenity trial in which Lawrence was accused of using taboo sexual terms.
Sons and Lovers tells the story of Constance (Connie) Chatterley who is married to Sir Clifford, a rich landowner who is paralyzed from the waist down. He is a bookish man, absorbed in his reading and in the running of his estate. Connie has an affair with the playwright Michaelis who lets her down. Her passions are then awakened by Oliver Mellors, the estate’s gamekeeper. In his landmark novel, Lawrence exhorts
men and women to break free of industrialized society’s constraints and follow the natural course of passion.

D. H. Lawrence (1885–1930) was an English writer and poet. In his writing he grappled mainly with the dehumanising effects of modernity and industrialisation. Lawrence’s works explore issues such as sexuality, emotional health, vitality, spontaneity, and instinct. His well-known books include Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow, Women in Love, and Lady Chatterley’s Lover.
Lawrence’s opinions earned him many enemies and he had to suffer official persecution, censorship, and misrepresentation of his creative work throughout the second half of his life, much of which he spent in voluntary exile. At the time of his death, his public reputation was that of a pornographer who had squandered his gifts. E.M. Forster, in an obituary notice, challenged this view, describing him as “the greatest imaginative novelist of our generation.” The respected literary critic F. R. Leavis also praised his artistic integrity and moral seriousness.

Polish-born English novelist Joseph Conrad’s powerful and controversial novella, Heart of Darkness, was first published in serialized form in 1899 in Blackwoods Magazine. Set mainly in the Belgian Congo, the novella explores the debilitating impact of colonization on the colonizer and the colonized. The unreliable narrator of the story, English sailor Charles Marlow is hired by a Belgian company to captain a steamer in the newly established Congo Free State. Intrigued by rumours about another company employee named Kurtz, who is said to be posted in the interior, Marlow sails upriver in search of him. During the journey and in his encounter with Kurtz, Marlow gets to see the “barren darkness” of men’s hearts and the horror and brutality colonizers have unleashed on the African heartland. Many post-colonial writers such as Chinua Achebe have criticized the racist overtones of Conrad’s portrayal of African culture and society. The novella also inspired Francis Ford Copolla’s epic Vietnam war film, Apocalypse Now (1979).

Polish-British novelist and short story writer Joseph Conrad was born in a Russian-ruled province of Poland (in present-day Ukraine) in 1857. Both his parents were politically active in the Polish independence movement. As a result, the family was exiled to northern Russia in 1863. Conrad was orphaned at 11 and sent to live with his relatives. He joined the French merchant marines at 16. At 21, he joined a British ship and went on to work for the British merchant marines for ten years. During this stint, he became a naturalised British citizen and travelled to Asia, Africa, Australia, and India. His voyage to the Congo (then a Belgian colony) in 1890 sparked his powerful novella, Heart of Darkness (1899).
Conrad’s well-known novels include Nostromo (1904), The Secret Agent (1907), Under Western Eyes (1911), and Victory (1915). He is the author of several insightful short stories that showcase his intensely personal vision and remarkable writing skills. Conrad retired from the marines due to ill health and died of a heart attack in England in 1924.

The strength of the pack is the wolf, and the strength of the wolf is the pack.
British writer Rudyard Kipling’s beloved classic The Jungle Book (1894) and The Second Jungle Book (1895) mainly feature animals. These stories were first published in magazines from 1893 to 1894, accompanied by illustrations, some created by Kipling’s father, John Lockwood Kipling.
The central character of The Jungle Book is a little boy or “man cub” named Mowgli who is raised in the jungle by a pack of wolves. Kipling gifts the readers a memorable cast of characters, which includes Baloo the bear and Shere Khan the tiger who play a major role in Mowgli’s life. Mowgli’s stay in the jungle and his journey to the village reveal the laws of the natural world and the complicated machinery of the man-made one.
Packed with fun and adventure as well as insightful moral lessons, The Jungle Book and The Second Jungle Book remain favourites of both children and adults all over the world.

British writer Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936) was born in Mumbai, India and educated in England. He returned to India in 1882 to live with his parents. Kipling’s experiences during his stay in India inspired him to write and publish several short stories. These were featured in his collection titled Plain Tales From the Hills (1888), which became very popular in England. Kipling also published a second collection of short stories titled Wee Willie Winkie (1888), and American Notes (1891), which featured his first impressions of America. Amongst Kipling’s bestselling books are The Jungle Book (1894) and The Second Jungle Book (1895). The prolific author was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1907 for “originality of imagination, virility of ideas, and remarkable talent for narration” which characterise his creations.

The lonely one offers his hand too quickly to whomever he
encounters.
Thus Spake Zarathustra by German thinker and writer
Friedrich Nietzsche is a path-breaking philosophical
novel, crafted in four parts. It features the fictitious
travels and speeches of Zarathustra – whose namesake
is the founder of Zoroastrianism. Nietzsche creates his
own version of Zarathustra in the book, overturning
accepted conventions and questioning traditional
notions of morality.
The first three parts of this seminal work were first
published separately, and later published in a single
volume in 1887. The fourth part remained inaccessible
to the public at large after Nietzsche wrote it in 1885.
It was in March 1892 that the four parts were printed
as a single volume. The four parts delve into concepts
such as the ‘eternal recurrence of the same,’ the parable
on the ‘death of God,’ morality, and the ‘prophecy’ of
the Übermensch. Thus Spake Zarathustra is considered to
be Nietzsche’s magnum opus.

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900) was a notable German philosopher who remains one of the most influential modern thinkers. He is renowned for writing on the concept of the “Superman”, the end of religion in a modern society as well as his exploration of the concepts of good and evil. Some of his major philosophical works are Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883), The Antichrist (1885) and Twilight of the Idols (1889). Many major thinkers of the 20th century such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Sigmund Freud and Albert Camus, among others, were deeply influenced by Nietzsche’s ideas.
After his death, the misappropriation of his works by the Nazi Party in the 30s and 40s of the last century to further their fascist activities resulted in a negative reputation for generations whereas Nietzsche himself was steadfastly against anti-Semitism.
Nietzsche died on 25 August 1900, aged 55.

Franz Kafka’s short stories—shocking, complex, intriguing, and unsettling—show him at the height of his writing prowess. Kafka takes on universal themes such as guilt, isolation, alienation, self-expression, cruelty, judgement, shame, sin, and redemption in them. Hovering between dream and reality, his dark and brilliantly crafted stories are populated by both humans and animals. They are intense, enigmatic, filled with generous doses of irony and horror that inspire the reader to search for meaning in the world’s maze. This collection features an impressive clutch of his short stories including In ‘The Penal Colony’, ‘The Hunger Artist’, ‘The Metamorphosis’, ‘The Burrow’, ‘The Judgment’, ‘Before the Law’, ‘A Country Doctor’, and ‘ The Great Wall of China’. ‘ The Penal Colony’ is seeped in the dehumanising horror of WWI and it mixes the dazzle of modern technological advances with the barbarism of archaic, absolute law. ‘The Metamorphosis’ in which the alienated hero turns into an insect is an exquisite study of the human condition. The characters in Kafka’s stories are hunted and haunted, wandering in a world governed by forces beyond their control.

Franz Kafka (1883–1924) was born into a German-speaking Jewish family in Prague, Bohemia (now in the Czech Republic). His father was a middle-class businessman, an extremely domineering parent who disapproved of Kafka’s fondness for literature. His mother Julie was better educated than his father. Kafka obtained the degree of Doctor of Law in 1906 and worked for a year as a law clerk for the civil and criminal courts. From 1908–1922, he worked with the Worker’s Accident Insurance Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia. His influential works (originally written in the German) such as the novels The Trial (1925) in which a man is charged with an unnamed offence, and The Metamorphosis (1915) in which the hero is transformed into an insect, mirror the alienation and anxiety experienced by many in the 20th century. Kafka allowed very few of his writings to be published while he was alive. Most of his critically lauded novels and stories appeared in print only after his death. He became an important figure of German and world literature when his close friend and literary executor, Max Brod, refused to destroy his novels, diaries and letters upon his death, as was instructed by Kafka.

British author E.M. Forster’s novel, A Passage to India (1924) is based on the author’s impressions of India. He started writing the novel soon after his first visit to the country. The story, set in the 1920s, plays out against the backdrop of the Indian independence movement. The title of the novel is inspired by American icon Walt Whitman’s 1870 poem, A Passage to India.
The novel revolves around four main characters—Dr. Aziz, his British friend Mr. Cyril Fielding, Mrs. Moore, and Miss Adela Quested. During a day trip to Marabar Caves, Adela mistakenly believes Dr. Aziz is trying to assault her. Dr. Aziz’s ordeal after being falsely accused, the run-up to his trial, and its consequences highlight the underlying tensions between Indians and the British rulers of India of the time.
Though Foster managed to shine a light on race relations and power imbalances in India during the British Raj, he did not directly condemn colonialism and imperialism in A Passage to India.

Edward Morgan Forster (1879–1970), British novelist, essayist, short story writer and critic, was born at Marylebone, London. His architect father died when Forster was very young and he was brought up by his mother. Forster’s celebrated works include the novels A Room with a View (1908), Howards End (1910), A Passage to India (1924), and Maurice (1971) as well as a large corpus of criticism.
Forster broke new ground by departing from the elaborate, flowery style of his predecessors and adopted a freer, more colloquial style in his books. His novels were seeped in social commentary, which was based on his in-depth observations of middle-class lives. He also had a deep-rooted interest in Mediterranean “paganism,”
which called for humans to maintain their connection with the natural world and live a life attuned to the earth’s rhythms.

Scottish political economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723–1790) is considered the father of modern economics. His influential book, The Wealth of Nations, is the first great work in political economy. In it, Smith argues against regulations on commerce and calls for a limited role of the government. The market economy is to be kept open and free if nations are to prosper, and the government’s core functions must be to maintain law and order, defence, build infrastructure, and promote education. Smith is critical of government control, but not an advocate of laissez-faire. He believes that the market economy can function only when rules are adhered to. Hence the government’s role in maintaining the rule of law is critical.
The Wealth Of Nations, written before the Industrial Revolution transformed the world, resonates with readers in modern times and offers valuable lessons in solving the economic conundrums of the day.

Scottish political economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723–1790) was the son of the Comptroller of the Customs at Kirkcaldy, Fife, Scotland. He attended University of Glasgow and Oxford University and was deeply influenced by Francis Hutcheson, the well-known professor of Moral Philosophy. In 1751, Smith was appointed Professor of Logic at University of Glasgow where he lectured on Ethics, Rhetoric, Jurisprudence, and Political Economy. Smith is the author of the seminal works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759), The Wealth of Nations (1776), and the posthumously published Essays on Philosophical Subjects (1795). The Wealth of Nations has played a significant role in creating the subject of political economy and developing it into an autonomous and systematic discipline.

The Divine Comedy, (original name La Commedia), is an epic poem written by celebrated Italian poet Dante Alighieri. Divided into three main sections— Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso—the basic structural unit of The Divine Comedy is the canto. Each canto consists of about 136–151 lines. The poem’s rhyme scheme is the terza rima (aba, bcb, cdc, etc.). So, the divine number of three is present throughout The Divine Comedy.
The poem traces the journey of a man (thought to be Dante himself) who visits the souls in Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. He has two guides by his side—Virgil who accompanies him to Inferno and Purgatorio, and Beatrice who introduces him to Paradiso. Dante uses this fictional journey as an effective device to grapple with the larger questions of existence—morality,
sin, redemption, the fall of mankind—as well as to wrestle with his personal demons and Italy’s political dilemmas.

Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) was a renowned Italian poet, prose writer, literary theorist, philosopher, and political thinker. His epic poem, La Divina Commedia (The Divine Comedy), is one of the most celebrated works of world literature. His other notable works include La Vita Nouva, The Banquet, and Literature in the Vernacular. Dante started writing poetry at a very young age and dedicated most of his poems to Beatrice, a girl he met when he was nine years old. Facing execution in his hometown of Florence due to his political activities, he moved to Ravenna, Italy,
where he remained till his death in 1321.

“A loss that can be repaired by money is not of such very great importance.” when king Shahryar discovers that his wife has been unfaithful to him, he kills her and resolves to marry a virgin every day and behead her the next morning. Scheherazade, his next bride, uses her wits to stay alive. She starts to tell the king an intriguing story each evening, but withholds the ending to sustain his interest in the next evening tale. A thousand and one nights later, the king spares the storyteller life forever. Tales from the Arabian Nights presents a fine selection of the stories that saved Scheherazade’s life. It includes some of the world’s best-known adventure tales such as the exploits of Sindbad the sailor, alaeddin, or the wonderful lamp, and Ali Baba and the forty thieves. The collection is replete with intrigue, satire, murder, mystery, romance, magic, horror, and even touches of science fiction. The cast of characters includes djinns, monsters, spirits, sorcerers, kings, queens, and commoners. Innovative in form and content, tales from the Arabian Nights features tragedies, comedies, erotica, historical events and more.

The sage does not accumulate (for himself). the more that he expends for others, The more does he possess of his own; The more that he gives to others, The more does he have himself. Written over 2000 years ago, Tao Te Ching, that roughly translates to “the way of integrity,” remains one of the most translated philosophical books in the world. A series of aphorisms and parables, this central text of Taoism, believed to have been written by its founder, Lao Tzu, invites the reader to follow the Tao or the way, through sound political advice, and the practice of peace, humility, modesty, morality, generosity, virtue, self-knowledge, self-restraint, and balance in order to exist in harmony with the universe. To date, Tao Te Ching remains a relevant guide in many spheres of life for its practical, simple and grassroots wisdom.

Lao Tzu, meaning “Old Master,” was a Chinese philosopher, who was believed to be an older contemporary of Confucius, and the founder of Taoism, one of the three great religious and philosophical traditions of China. A record keeper in the court of Zhou in the 6th century b.c., Lao Tzu has been credited as the author of Tao Te Ching, though the identity of this seminal Taoist treatise’s author(s) or compiler(s) is still widely debated. In the tradition of most ancient Chinese philosophers, Lao Tzu often takes recourse to paradox, analogy, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, rhythm, and appropriation of ancient sayings, to explain his ideas. James Legge (1815-1897) was a Scottish sinologist, scholar and missionary, who translated Classical Chinese texts into English. He served as a representative of the London Missionary Society in Malacca and Hong Kong (1840-1873) and was the first Professor of Chinese at Oxford University (1876-1897). In association with Max Müller, he prepared the monumental Sacred Books of the East series, published in 50 volumes between 1879 and 1891.

All human wisdom is contained in these two words: Wait and Hope.
On his wedding day, Edmond Dantès, a sailor, is arrested for treason. Charged with being a Bonapartiste, he is wrongfully imprisoned without trial in the dreaded Château d’If. Dantès has been betrayed, concludes his fellow prisoner and mentor, Abbé Faria.
After a dramatic escape from prison, Dantès acquires a fortune at the Island of Monte Cristo, and returns to France as the mysterious and sought-after Count of Monte Cristo. With steely resolve, he sets about wreaking vengeance on those who conspired his ruination. And with devastating consequences.
Set in France, Italy, and the islands in the Mediterranean during the historical events of 1815-1839, this literary classic by Alexandre Dumas, père, originally published between 1844 and 1845, is an exploration of universal themes like romance, hope, loyalty, betrayal, vengeance, forgiveness, and justice.

Born as Dumas Davy de la Pailleterie on 24 July 1802, in Villers-Cotterêts, Picardy, France, AlexAndre dumAs was one of the most prolific authors of his time.The last name Dumas was adopted from his grandmother, a former enslaved Haitian woman. His father,Thomas-Alexandre, assumed the name Dumas when he enlisted in Napoleons army. Here, he was given the dubious nickname Black Devil.
Popular for his historical adventure novels like The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers (initially published as serials), Dumas immersed himself in literature after he moved to Paris in 1822. During the 1830 revolution, he worked as a scribe for the Ducd Orléans (later named King Louis Philippe), and began writing dramas and comedies. Dumas had a penchant for writing volumes of essays on some of the most infamous cases in history. It is believed that his published works totalled 100,000 pages and his works have been translated into more than 100 languages.
A household name and a celebrity in France and across Europe, Dumas founded the Théâtre Historique in Paris in the 1840s.
Dumas died on 5 December 1870, in Puys, France. He was buried at his birthplace of Villers- Cotterêts in the department of Aisne.
In 1970, as a mark of honour, the Alexandre Dumas Paris Métro station was named after
the author. His country home outside Paris, the Château de Monte-Cristo, has been restored as a museum.

This hobble of being alive is rather serious, don’t you think so?
Thomas Hardy’s magnum opus, Tess of the d’Urbervilles first appeared in book form in 1891. It initially received mixed reviews and was censored due to the challenges that it presented to the sexual morals of Victorian society.
However, through the subtitle of the novel, A PureWoman Faithfully Presented, Hardy sympathises with the working class woman who becomes a hapless victim of the rigid Victorian society. Tess of the d’Urbervilles was later considered one of the greatest novels of the nineteenth century. Through Tess Durbeyfield, Hardy skilfully shows the social injustices that are deeply rooted in gender. A moving tale of loss, unrequited love and condemnation, the novel has one of the most tragic endings of all time.
Adapted to film, theatre and television several times over, the novel is a timeless classic.

Born on 2 June 1840, THOMAS HARDY was an English novelist, poet and dramatist from Higher Bockhampton, Dorset, England. He was known for his genial nature and the ability to sensitively portray human sufferings and injustices in his works. Some of his major novels are Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886) and Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891).
Hardy was known for his regionalised plots that represented a rural way of life which was fast declining. He often challenged Victorian morality and was often sympathetic to the working classes in his novels. Today, he holds the unique distinction of being a renowned nineteenth century novelist and a twentieth century poet.
He died aged 87

Depend upon it, there is nothing so unnatural as the commonplace.
221B Baker Street. The most beloved fictional detective is in pursuit of the absolute truth.
Dr. Watson, his sidekick and biographer, cannot help but marvel at his friend's impeccable logic, and what he deems elementary, Watson finds extraordinary.
The Adventures and Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes has some of the earliest as well as greatest Sherlock Holmes short stories ever written by the master of detective fiction, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Amongst his personal favourites are The Adventure of the Speckled Band', 'The Red-Headed League', 'A Scandal in Bohemia', 'The Five Orange Pips', and 'The Final Problem'.
A keepsake edition.

Born on 22 May 1859 in Edinburgh, SIR ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE started writing stories as a student. With a repertoire of over 30 books, 150 short stories, essays, plays, and poems, he earned the distinction of being one of the greatest short story writers ever, since Edgar Allan Poe. A master of all literary genres, his memorable creation is the invincible sleuth Sherlock Holmes whom the readers are introduced to in his first novel, A Study in Scarlet (1887). Such was the charisma of this Great Detective that after the author killed Holmes in ‘The Final Problem’ (1893), he was compelled to bring Holmes back after vociferous demands from readers.
A war correspondent, a spiritualist, an athlete, and a historian, the author was knighted for his contribution to Literature in a South African field hospital during the Boer War in 1902. He died on 7 July 1930 in Crowborough, Sussex.

"Everyone sees what you appear to be, few experience what you really are. Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince—a book on the ruthless acquisition of power and governance of the State—with the intention of appeasing Lorenzo de’ Medici, the ruler of Florence, in the hope of resuscitating his political career. Often referred to as Machiavelli’s ‘job application’ in disguise, The Prince foregrounded the contrasting aspects of virtue and vice: virtue is not always an admirable trait and vice is not always detrimental to society. He presented an ‘unsentimental’ analysis of human behaviour and justified acts of immorality, deceit and deviousness to control a State. Written in 1513, shortly after Machiavelli was exiled from Florence, The Prince was posthumously published in 1532. Prohibited by the Court of Rome, The Prince was also banned by the Catholic Church. By early 1600s, William Shakespeare used ‘Machiavel’ as a term to describe an unscrupulous, devious and scheming person in his works. Even today, ‘Machiavellian’ means everything evil."


Born on 3 May 1469 in Florence, Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was a historian, diplomat, politician, philosopher, humanist, and writer. Regarded as the founder of modern political science, Machiavelli lived in the turbulent times of power struggles among European states and the Holy Roman Empire.
The young Machiavelli became a diplomat after the temporary fall of Florence’s ruling Medici family in 1494. From 1498 to 1512, he served as secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence. Between 1503 and 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia. In 1509, under his tutelage, Florentine citizen soldiers defeated Pisa. After his plans to organise a Florentine militia against the return of the Medici family to power in 1512 were unearthed, Machiavelli was banished from politics and thrown into prison. It was during this time that he earned the reputation for being shrewd and ruthless. In fact, the term ‘Machiavellian’ is often associated with deviousness and political deceit.
After the death of Pope Julius II in 1513, the son of Lorenzo de’ Medici became Pope Leo X. Machiavelli hoped that by dedicating his most renowned work— The Prince—to Lorenzo de’ Medici, he would obtain an office that would help him return to public life. Alas, that was not to be.
Machiavelli’s other seminal works include On the Art of War (1521), ‘The Mandrake’ (1524) and Discourses on Livy which was published posthumously in 1531. He also wrote carnival songs, comedies and poetry.
Following a period of illness, Machiavelli died on 21 June 1527, aged 58.

"The Republic by Plato is a Socratic dialogue, written around 380 BC; it is one of the most influential works of political philosophy. As is the norm in Socratic dialogue, here too, Socrates is the main speaker who engages in dialogue with other Athenians on the idea of justice. The central question that Plato addresses is What is justice? both at the individual and political levels. He supplements his ethical question with the secondary question What is the relation of justice to happiness? He furthers his argument with examples of a just city (Kallipolis) as well as through discussions of different modes of justice, virtues and vices, the importance of a philosophical king, amongst other ideas. Since mid-19th century, The Republic has remained one of Plato's widely read dialogues and continues to influence political thought."


Born c. 428 bc, Plato, amongst the most influential philosophers of Classical Greece, played a major role in shaping Western thought. A student of the famed philosopher Socrates, he was the teacher of the equally influential philosopher Aristotle, a student at the Academy founded by Plato. Considered the world's first university of philosophy, the Academy is where Plato propagated his philosophical ideas.
The first to relate philosophy with polity, Plato is known for his Dialogues, considered to mark the beginning of Western philosophy. Some of his influential works are Republic (380 bc), Apology (399 bc) and Symposium (c. 380-375 bc). His major ideas include Platonic Love, Theory of Mimesis and Plato's Cave.
Plato is believed to have died c. 424 bc, and is buried in the grounds of his Academy.

"You have power over your mind—not outside events. Realise this, and you will find strength. Meditations, written by the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 161-180), is the common name for a series of personal notes that the Emperor wrote to himself, probably without the intention to ever publish his work. Deeply influenced by Stoicism, the writings were probably a means for self-improvement. The simplicity and wisdom of the quotations make them relatable for the common reader. The series is divided into twelve books, which correspond to different phases of the Emperor’s life. Nevertheless, the central themes of self-reflection and self-discipline run throughout his writings. Aurelius believed in the need to bring the self in harmony with the universe, control rash reactions and look for logical solutions. One of the most influential philosophical books ever written, Meditations paves a way of life that is deeply influenced by teachings of Stoic philosophy."


Born on 26 April 121 CE, Marcus Aurelius was the Emperor of Rome from 161-180 CE. Considered the last successor of the ‘Five Good Emperors’, who were from the Nerva-Antonine dynasty, he was associated with the Golden Age of the Roman Empire.
Best known for his widely acclaimed philosophical notes, Meditations, the Emperor was a practitioner of Stoicism. Well-versed in Greek and Latin, he chose to record his reflections in Greek. Written at a turbulent time when he was securing the trans-Danubian frontiers against German invasion, the reflections were personal and a means for selfimprovement and guidance for the Emperor-Philosopher.

Celebrated for nobility of character and his philosophical achievement embodied in Meditations, Marcus Aurelius died in 180 CE, marking the end of Pax Romana, the period of peace and stability, for the Roman Empire.

"…to fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy’s resistance without fighting. The Art Of War is believed to have been written by the Chinese military strategist, philosopher and writer Sun Tzu around 5th century BC. Divided into thirteen chapters, the text is a finely crafted, meticulous guide that deals with military tactics and manoeuvres, which remain relevant and influential even today. Anthologised under Seven Military Classics Of Ancient China, not only has it shaped East Asian warfare, it has also inspired military experts in the West over the centuries. Despite dealing with military stratagem, the text has also inspired experts in the fields of politics, law, sports and business. As a result, The Art Of War has been translated into several languages including English, French, Manchu, Assamese, and other Asian languages."


Sun Tzu, born in the late Spring and Autumn period of China, was a military strategist, philosopher and writer who was most famous for writing the widely influential The Art Of War (5th century bc), the oldest military treatise in the world. While little is known about Sun Tzu’s early life, it is widely believed that he served as a military general under King Helu of Wu, and was a venerated military figure in Chinese and East Asian culture.
His fame spread to the West from 20th century on, when The Art Of War was translated into English and French. The military tactics and manoeuvres
prescribed in the book were applicable to various competitive fields, which led to the increasing importance of both, the text and its author.